Different Backgrounds Of Family, Childhood Outcomes And...

In this paper I analyze five different people who come from very similar or different backgrounds to discuss and see the trend in how my respondents beliefs correlate with each other and differ from one another. I will be analyzing their attitude towards the definition of family, the length of a relationship and definition of family, childhood outcomes and single parents, and their comfort with gay men and lesbians. These topics are all very controversial and although some of the people interviewed in this study may come from similar backgrounds their beliefs are scattered and some very different. Throughout this interview process I interviewed my eighty five year old grandmother who raised two of the other interviewees (60 year old daughter Aunt Penny and 57 year old son Uncle Eric). Although these three peoples backgrounds are very similar and one of the interviewees raised the two of the others their beliefs don’t always parallel with each other. To get a more diverse group of results I interviewed my fifty-four year old mother who was not raised by my grandmother and my fifty three year old Aunt Debby who married my fifty seven year old Uncle Eric. The importance of this MYPEEPS is to show that although people may have been raised by the same person, share a similar age, or grew up in same area everyone’s definition of family is different along with everyone’s beliefs. After interviewing and analyzing the members of my family I chose to work with I realized theShow MoreRelatedRelationship Between Parenting And Childhood Outcome1595 Words   |  7 PagesWhen it comes to exploring the relationship between parenting and childhood outcome there are a lot of undetermined answers but a lot of my subjects agreed on the same things. When I asked my subjects how masculine a boy is they all said it is dependent on the outside environment. 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Hamlet by William Shakespeare - 527 Words

Hamlet The tragic hero who happens to be Hamlet is a man of noble stature. Hamlet is very different from many others, this is because, he has a great personality and he comes from nothing but greatness. By him destroying himself for the greater good, Hamlet shows that he is a man of noble stature. Hamlet’s father was King Hamlet; this makes Hamlet himself next in line to take on the throne, which his family has left. He is a prince so he is automatically of high status. Hamlets tragic flaw is his inefficiency to take action when it was needed the most. He is under different circumstances than his father because Hamlet himself is under the control of his emotions rather than his own sense of bravery. When Hamlet is given the chance to kill Claudius, who is his fathers murderer, he seems to be unsure of what he should do. Claudius was at prayer at this time, which made Hamlet reevaluate whether or not to kill him. In this instance Claudius could begin to beg for forgiveness for murdering the King, King Hamlet. At this point in time, Hamlet decides that he will wait for a better time to get the revenge he wants against Claudius. Hamlet displays that he is very indecisive. This flaw will lead to his death and to the death of others, which could have been avoided if he were to murder Claudius the first chance he had. The factor of â€Å"Free-Choice† does seem to contribute to the tragedy of Hamlet. As shown in the play Hamlet is a very indecisive person, so it’s hard for himShow MoreRelatedHamlet, By William Shakespeare880 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare is praised as the pioneering English poet and playwright whose collection of theatrical works is regarded as the greatest artistic value throughout the history of English literature. Shakespeare delved into the spiritual and mental component of humanity and the consequences that arise from this human spirit when it is disputed. 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Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights Free Essays

string(48) " helps to guarantee a just return on investing\." The argument refering the economic deductions of rational belongings rights ( IPRs ) has gained considerable attending over the past two decennaries in the context of the World Trade Organization ‘s ( WTO ) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) . TRIPS aims to contract the spreads in the manner that IPRs are protected around the universe, and to convey them under common international regulations. Developing states are under increasing force per unit area to beef up their national rational belongings ( IP ) regimes, in order to harmonize them with those of developed states. We will write a custom essay sample on Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights or any similar topic only for you Order Now Developing states have been for long clip under demand by developed states for the execution of rational belongings rights. The chief concern by the developed states is to protect the inventions in the developing states from the illegal imitation and copying. The underdeveloped states are divided over the argument on the base of their economic conditions, foreign direct investing and technological edification. The concern for the development states is economic deductions for the execution of such rational belongings governments in their several states. Intellectual Property Rights are one of the sensitive countries for developing states whose proper execution with appropriate timing could raise the socio-economical conditions of the developing states. It is practically inevitable for the developing states to acquire benefit from the strong rational belongings rights owned by the discoverers in the developed states. From the planetary public assistance position, it was argued that holding the weaker rational belongings in the underdeveloped states does non needfully means that discoverers in the developed states would lose, nevertheless the comparative fiscal benefits associated with such innovations could be less. Chapter 1 Introduction Overview Intellectual Property Rights ( IPR ) are sole rights over creative activities of the head, both artistic and commercial and the corresponding Fieldss of jurisprudence. These include innovations, literary and artistic plants, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commercialism. The success of a merchandise today relies much on creativeness and invention. Awareness of IPRs is important to guarantee originative thoughts and inventions are good protected from commercial development. There remains considerable contention on the economic impact of TRIPS ( interpreted as the tightening of IPRs ) in developing states. This study focuses on the long-run structural issues refering the impact of TRIPS on industrial and engineering development in hapless states. Systems to regulate rational belongings and advance societal public assistance through invention and cognition creative activity are non new. Despite their being through the past decennaries and centuries, rational belongings was comparatively absent from the public argument. The relationship between IPRs and development is so rather complex from a theoretical point of position. On one manus, there are theoretical statements proposing that stronger IPRs can hold positive effects on development. On the other manus, there are theoretical statements against stronger IPRs in developing states. As such, this study reviews the empirical grounds about the relationship between the strength of IPRs and each of the following countries in developing states that is foreign direct investing ( FDI ) , trade, invention and traditional cognition and familial resources. It is found that the relationship is viewed better from an surrogate position, where the broader degrees of economic and societal development have a strong consequence on how IPRs affect developing states. In this manner, the study helps to shift the initial inquiry on the functions of IPRs in developing states and to clear up its related grounds base. Chapter 2 Intellectual Property Rights 2.1 Overview Intellectual Property Rights ( IPRs ) are the cardinal drive forces behind economic growing. Inventions, particular procedures, computing machine plans, typical names or Markss, musical and other media work, designs and trade secrets may all be Intellectual Property right protected. Such IPRs must be decently identified, carefully evaluated and skilfully protected if they are to carry through their commercial potency. There are two classs of IPR viz. Industrial Property and Copyrights. 2.2 Industrial Property Industrial Property includes innovations, hallmarks, industrial design, and geographical indicant of beginning. Industrial belongings are rights due to industry thoughts for others non to copy or steal thoughts. The three types of Industrial Property are patent, hallmarks, industrial design right and trade secrets. 2.2.1 Patents The sole right of the discoverer to forestall others from doing, utilizing and selling a patented innovation for a fixed period of clip in return for the discoverer ‘s unwraping the inside informations of the innovation to the populace. Peoples could non copy the innovation under this regulation and is usage at industrial or commercial intents. 2.2.2 Trade secrets Trade secret refers to any information that may be used in the operation of a concern and that is sufficiently valuable to afford an existent or possible economic advantage. Some companies make their cardinal employees to subscribe set abouting non to unwrap information about the research that they are working on to other people. Some companies require employees to subscribe set abouting non to fall in a rival within a specified period, such as six months, in instance they resign from the company. These steps are taken so as to protect the companies ‘ trade secrets. 2.2.3 Hallmarks Hallmarks are commercial beginning indexs, typical marks capable of separating the goods or services that are produced or provided by a specific individual or endeavor. Such marks, including personal names, letters, numbers, nonliteral elements and combinations of colors every bit good as any combination of such marks, shall be eligible for enrollment as hallmarks. Hallmarks are for merchandises in selling. It is a mark for forestalling confusion of selling merchandises. 2.2.4 Industrial Design Right Industrial design right protects the signifier of visual aspect, manner or design of an object. Copyright includes novels, verse forms, dramas, movies, music, art work. When an industrial design is protected, the proprietor that is the individual or entity that has registered the design is assured an sole right against unauthorised copying or imitation of the design by 3rd parties. This helps to guarantee a just return on investing. You read "Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights" in category "Essay examples" Protecting industrial designs helps economic development, by promoting creativeness in the industrial and fabrication sectors, every bit good as in traditional humanistic disciplines and trades. They contribute to the enlargement of commercial activities and the export of national merchandises. 2.3 Copyright Copyright protects merely the signifiers of looks of the thought non the thoughts themselves. For illustration agreements of words, musical notes, colourss and forms of work are protected. The continuance of copyright exists during the being of right of first publication proprietor. It begins from the minute when the work is created and continues some clip after the proprietor ‘s decease. The ownership of copyright belongs to the individual who created the work. 2.3.1 Copyright and IPR Copyright and IPR are considered to be an of import portion of modern life. Technological alteration means that IPR are going more and more important. Copyright notices should look on all plants for which protection is sought. Intellectual belongings should be decently dealt with, within all contracts and where appropriate confidentiality understandings should be used, for illustration to protect person ‘s â€Å" cognition † or innovations during dialogues from being exploited for fiscal or other addition. Copyright is an highly relevant right for the information engineering sector. It could about hold been designed with computing machines and the Internet in head. Copyright is the right of the conceiver of a literary, dramatic, artistic or musical work to command the reproduction and publication or public presentation of the work. Equally far as the Internet is concerned, copyright protects most stuffs on the Internet. It protects computing machine package and its beginning codification, screen shows and other literary, musical and artistic plants on the Internet. 2.4 Brief overview on WIPO The World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is a specialised bureau of the United Nations. Established in 1970, the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is an international organisation dedicated to assisting to guarantee that the rights of Godheads and proprietors of rational belongings are protected worldwide and that discoverers and writers are therefore recognized and rewarded for their inventiveness. This international protection acts as a goad to human creativeness, forcing frontward the boundaries of scientific discipline and engineering and enriching the universe of literature and the humanistic disciplines. How does WIPO advance the protection of rational belongings? As portion of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to make and harmonise regulations and patterns to protect rational belongings rights. Most industrialised states have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and underdeveloped states, nevertheless, are now constructing up their patent, hallmark, and copyright Torahs and systems. With the rapid globalisation of trade during the last decennary, WIPO plays a cardinal function in assisting these new systems evolve through pact dialogue, legal and proficient aid, and preparation in assorted signifiers, including in the country of enforcement of rational belongings rights. WIPO besides provides planetary enrollment systems – for patents, hallmarks, and industrial designs which are under regular reappraisal by Member States and other stakeholders to find how they can break function the demands of users and possible users. WIPO works with its Member States to demystify rational belongings from the grass-roots degree through the concern sector to policy shapers to guarantee that its benefits are good known, decently understood, and accessible to all. Chapter 3 Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) 3.1 Introduction TRIPS is an international understanding administered by the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) that sets down minimal criterions for many signifiers of rational belongings ( IP ) ordinance as applied to subjects of other WTO Members. It was negotiated at the terminal of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) in 1994. The TRIPS understanding introduced rational belongings jurisprudence into the international trading system for the first clip and remains the most comprehensive international understanding on rational belongings to day of the month. In 2001, developing states, concerned that developed states were take a firm standing on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a unit of ammunition of negotiations that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the range of TRIPS. After the Uruguay unit of ammunition, the GATT became the footing for the constitution of the World Trade Organization. Because confirmation of TRIPS is a mandatory demand of World Trade Organization rank, any state seeking to obtain easy entree to the legion international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must ordain the rigorous rational belongings Torahs mandated by TRIPS. For this ground, TRIPS is the most of import many-sided instrument for the globalisation of rational belongings Torahs. Many surveies have analyzed the impact of TRIPS on both the developed and developing states based on two attacks, foremost from the historical/empirical position, including the application of statistical/econometric techniques, and 2nd from a theoretical position, chiefly game theory. The pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows across states From the historical/empirical position, research workers have already investigated at length the impact of TRIPS on assorted economic systems. These surveies normally focus on pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS informations on foreign direct investing forms, royalty and licensing payment flows, and so on. For illustration, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) reappraisal IMF informations crossing from 1992 to 2003 in selected European Union and APEC states ( as shown in Figure 1 ) . Figure 1: Pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows Beginning: Adapted from IMF Balance of Payments Statistics ( 2004 ) ; La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) Their analysis shows that for the USA, France, the UK, and Japan, there are post-TRIP additions in the influx of net royalties and licence transportations, while many other states have experienced increased escapes. Lai ( 2008 ) reaches similar decisions by demoing the biggest victors ( USA, Germany, France ) and biggest also-rans ( Canada, Brazil ) from TRIPS enforcement and patent harmonisation across take parting states under the TRIPS understanding. Therefore, in footings of net royalties and licence transportations, merely a few developed states benefit from TRIPS while most of the developing states suffer from TRIPS. Knowledge/technology transportations and IPRs Another of import issue is whether a stronger domestic IPR protection can pull more foreign technology/knowledge transportations into the underdeveloped states. Maskus ( 2000 ) concludes that foreign direct investings ( FDIs ) and engineering transportation may increase when patent rights are strengthened. But the positive impact of stronger IPR protection depends on the competitory nature of the economic system. Similarly, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) point out that †the effectivity of stronger IPRs in exciting growing depends on the capableness of the domestic economic system to implement the IPRs and to absorb foreign direct investing and foreign engineering expeditiously. † Hence, a stronger IPR government may increase the cognition influx, but a stronger IPR criterion is non a satisfactory status. Knowledge transportations from foreign states depend on sufficient conditions, such as an equal substructure of the domestic economic system, high labour productivity/wage rate ratio, unfastened trade policy, advanced capacity, market size, GDP per capita, political stableness, and so on. If most or all of the necessary conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR protection is likely to pull more FDI or engineering licensing which transportations knowledge and/or gives the domestic state a better opportunity to tap into the planetary stock of cognition. However, if few or none of the conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR government entirely will non do any important difference in increasing the cognition flow into the state. The being of the other ( sufficient ) conditions is one of the grounds why the four †East Asiatic Tigers † and China received a batch of FDIs while their IPR governments were weak, and why some other states can non pull more foreign investing even aft er they strengthen their IPR criterions. 3.2 Execution in developing states When developing states join the planetary administration, they are bound with rational belongings right understanding. They are coerced into an understanding, which transfer million of dollars worth of monopoly net incomes from hapless states to wealth states under the belongings right jurisprudence. The understanding related to rational belongingss such as trade-related rational belongings rights ( TRIPS ) , TRIMs utilizing planetary administration GATT, have been set up. However, all these understandings is far from favorable for developing words as it merely represented the most strongest and competitory MNC ‘s and industrialized states. In TRIPS, for case, belongings right understanding in computing machine package, pharmaceuticals merely to protect industrialized states based houses, which have comparative advantage in these merchandises ( Stubbs and Geoffrey 2000, p.174-5 ) . The costs of implementing the TRIPS Agreement to developing states are really high. Mexico spent over US $ 30 million upgrading rational belongings Torahs and enforcement ( Finger and Schuler 1999 ) . In bilateral trade dialogues, US force per unit area led states like Nigeria, Uganda, Morocco and Cambodia to implement patent protection governments for pharmaceuticals which are more restrictive than those required under TRIPS and are therefore known as TRIPS Plus. Intellectual belongings right under TRIPS is besides applied really loosely to let patent rights over single works cistrons, seed and their features and WTO members must protect works assortments either through patents ( WIPO ) . Up to now agricultural biotechnology MNC ‘s have filed 1000s of patents on works assortments, seeds. This would connote the remotion of husbandmans ‘ rights in developing states over workss, seeds and progressively easy for MNC ‘s which ain patent to implement their rational belongings rights in developing states. For illustration husbandmans in Nalgonda territory of Andhra Pradesh in India paid up to 1,600 rupees for a 450-gram package of Bt cotton seeds own by MNC ‘s, ( of which the royalty constituent was 1,200 rupees ) , as against 450-500 rupees for normal assortments. Despite the costs, Bt cotton outputs have sometimes been lower than those of local assortments ( The Hindu, India ‘s National intelligence paper, 2003 ) . Dutch east indies In Indonesia, there are besides rather a few grounds have shown how the planetary regulation implemented in TRIPS and TRIMS is working chiefly to protect the involvement of industrialized states and MNC ‘s instead so developing states. Owing to international force per unit area, Indonesian authorities has to hold to legion international conventions on rational belongings right. These include the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Trademark Law Treaty, the Nice Agreement for the International Classification of Unclassified Goods and Services, and the Strasbourg Agreement Concerning International Patent Classification. Since so Indonesia need to sporadically escalate actions against copyright buccaneering or will be criticized from planetary community. The new right of first publication jurisprudence in Indonesia came into force in July 2003. The jurisprudence contains a figure of of import commissariats long sought by MNC ‘s operating in this state including proviso for the issue of an implementing ordinance on optical discs ( OD ) , condemnable punishments for end-user buccaneering and the ability of right holders to seek civil injunctions against plagiarists. The right of first publication jurisprudence establishes rights to licence, bring forth, rent or broadcast audiovisual, cinematographic, and computing machine package. Young graduates come ining a profession have get downing wages of around $ 80- $ 100 per month ( Richter and Pamela, 2004 ) . It is, hence, unrealistic to anticipate the state like this to be able to use strong moralss such as TRIPS where the support of the general population is still hapless. If copyright jurisprudence is really purely applied and the pupils are required to purchase a book that will be more so their life disbursal for a month, ( like some foreign text editions are ) at that place will non many of them could attempt to hold it. This state of affairs will besides do the future coevals of developing states be denied from the newest engineering and cognition. Under the inducements created by the planetary system of patenting, right of first publication and rational belongings right protection, the planetary participant in pharmaceutical industries will be more interesting in bring forthing medical specialty for the rich instead so the hapless. 3.3 Benefits from allowing monopoly rights There are four sorts of benefits from allowing monopoly rights to pioneers. Each is capable to makings every bit far as developing states are concerned. The stimulation of private invention The importance of this benefit rises with the gait of proficient alteration as at present and with the ‘imitability ‘ of new engineering, peculiarly in such activities as package. It besides grows with globalization, which leads pioneers ( in peculiar big multinational companies ) to pitch their R A ; D to universe instead than national markets. However, where the state in inquiry has little or no local advanced capablenesss, the strengthening of IPRs does non excite domestic invention. The extent to which it stimulates planetary R A ; D depends on its portion of the market for peculiar advanced activities and its ability to pay for expensive new merchandises. Where the economic system undertakes technological activity of an absorbent and adaptative sort, the great majority of informal and R A ; D attempt in freshly industrializing states, stronger IPRs may hold no consequence in exciting it. On the contrary, to the extent that such attempt involves copying and change by reversal technology inventions elsewhere, it can compress a critical beginning of acquisition, capableness edifice and fight. The usage of the new cognition in productive activity Without such usage, of class, there can be no fiscal wages to pioneers in footings of higher monetary values and net incomes, it leads to higher incomes, employment, fight and so on for the economic system as a whole. If the cognition is non exploited within the economic system, and its merchandises are provided at higher monetary values than in with weak IPRs, the additions are correspondingly less and the costs correspondingly higher. There may still be additions, if invention is stimulated by the being of that state ‘s market and the new merchandises represent a existent addition in consumer public assistance. This addition has to be set against non merely the higher monetary values induced by IPRs but besides against decreases in local economic activity as a consequence of the monopoly and longer term growing potency. The airing of new cognition to other agents Stricter IPRs may ease the transportation of engineering across national boundary lines every bit good as addition local diffusion by supplying an enforceable legal model. This is likely to be of particular significance for technology-intensive merchandises and activities, where pioneers are antipathetic to selling engineering to states with weak IPRs, where escape is a existent possibility ( Cantwell and Andersen, 1996 ) . The economic benefit in a underdeveloped state depends on the presence of local agents capable of buying, absorbing and deploying new engineerings, peculiarly complex high engineerings. If no such agents exist, rigorous IPRs offer no benefit for engineering transportation. If they exist, the size of the benefits depends on two things: the extent to which rigorous IPRs raise the cost of purchasing engineerings, and whether the options of copying and contrary technology would hold been executable, cheaper and more rewarding in constructing up local technological cap ablenesss. The stimulation of invention by other endeavors This is a really of import benefit of the IPR system, but clearly its value is chiefly to economic systems where there is intense advanced activity by big Numberss of viing endeavors. Innovation around a peculiar patent is one of the most dynamic beginnings of technological advancement. However, this is of small or no value to hapless and unindustrialized states that lack a local advanced base. These makings are, of class, acknowledged in the IPR literature. Chapter 4 Intellectual Property and Foreign Direct Investment 4.1 Overview Normally, FDI is seen as cardinal determiners for economic development and poorness decrease in developing states. Inward FDI can turn out to be good to developing states, ensuing in the betterment in domestic advanced capacity, increased R A ; D employment, better preparation and support to instruction. Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning scholarly literature on the relationship between IPRs and FDI influxs in developing states. From a theoretical point of view, the relationship between IPRs and FDI determinations is complex. The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states in their influence on FDI determinations. 4.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Investing by houses can be more likely when host states have strong IP protection, as this reduces the hazards of imitation and leads to a comparatively larger net demand for protected merchandises ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Hence, IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI by enabling foreign houses to vie efficaciously with local houses that possess ownership advantages ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) . Stronger rational belongings rights can make location advantages Not merely can IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI, but they can besides act upon where multinationals decide to turn up that investing. IPRs are defensive in nature and hence differ across national boundaries. Therefore, stronger IPRs in some underdeveloped states can be a location advantage that will positively impact multinationals ‘ determinations. On the contrary, developing states characterised by weak IPRs can be less attractive locations for foreign houses. However, in the context of TRIPS, it is sensible to believe that the tendency toward harmonization of IPRs within TRIPS would countervail such location advantages. In this sense, states with weaker protection can go more attractive as they strengthen their IPRs, and the comparative attraction of those with strong IPRs already in being can fall ( Maskus, 2004 ) . Stronger rational belongings rights can increase quality of foreign direct investing IPRs affect the composing of FDI. Strong protection may promote FDI in high engineering sectors, where such rights play an of import function. In add-on, it may switch the focal point of FDI undertakings from distribution to fabrication ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) . 4.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Strengthening rational belongings rights can increase market power Strong IPRs negatively influence FDI by supplying rights holders with increased market power. As a consequence, strong IPRs cause houses to deprive and cut down their service to foreign states. The market power consequence can cut down the snap of demand confronting the foreign house, bring oning them to put or bring forth less of its patentable merchandise in the host state. Stronger IPRs can let the pattern of higher monetary values by foreign houses because IPRs cut down competition among houses. Therefore, stronger monetary values can counterbalance for lower investing or production. Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage foreign direct investing by promoting Licensing Strong IPRs can besides do multinationals to exchange their preferable manner of bringing from foreign production and R A ; D to licensing ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Ferrantino ( 1993 ) argues that houses prefer FDI over licencing when protection is weak, as houses are more able to keep direct control over their assets through internalised foreign production or inhouse foreign R A ; D. In this instance, beef uping IPRs diminishes the inducement for FDI at the border for R A ; D-intensive industries ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1997 ) . 4.4 Evidence from the position of developing states Intellectual belongings rights seem to impact positively on economic development through foreign direct investing Branstetter et Al. ( 2007 ) supply empirical penetrations about the effects of increased FDI on industrial development. By utilizing firm-level panel informations on US transnational houses, they examined how those houses responded to a series of rational belongings reforms undertaken in 16 states in Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Middle East ( Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela ) . Their findings showed that US multinationals expanded the graduated table of their activities in states after these states implemented IPR reforms. The addition in usage of inputs in the host states was disproportionately higher among multinationals that made extended usage of IPRs. In add-on to it, industrial activity expanded overall after rights reform. This enlargement of transnational activity more than countervail any diminution in the imitative activity of local houses. Intellectual belongings rights positively affect outward foreign direct investing Refering outward FDI from developing states, Park and Lippoldt ( 2003 ) through empirical observation showed that that an addition in the strength of patent rights tended to significantly and positively impact the outward FDI of developing and least developed states. This implies these states could derive from the harmonization of IPRs ( Park and Lippoldt, 2003 ) . Chapter 5 Intellectual Property and Trade 5.1 Overview For most underdeveloped states, international trade allows them to get high value-added goods through importing that are necessary for economic development, but which are non produced domestically. In bend, exports allow developing states to transform underutilized natural resources and surplus labour into foreign exchange, in order to pay for imports to back up economic growing. The undermentioned paragraphs briefly present the chief theoretical statements back uping and disputing the position that stronger IPRs addition and heighten international trade. 5.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Stronger IPRs provide ownership advantages to houses functioning foreign markets by supplying legal resort against misdemeanor of their assets. Therefore, stronger IPRs expand the markets served by houses. Strong IPRs can besides increase bilateral exchange to foreign markets by cut downing the costs associated with preventing loss of cognition assets. Such costs consist of foregone grosss ensuing from reduced bilateral exchange and/or disbursals incurred to do cognition assets hard to copy ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ) International harmonization of rational belongings rights governments can cut down the dealing costs associated with trade Exporting houses in developed states face extra costs when exporting to developing states, when they must prosecute in activities designed to suppress local imitation. International harmonization of IPR governments can decrease the dealing costs of operating in different regulative environments. In this respect, it can stand for a location advantage for the participating states. 5.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Strengthening rational belongings rights can increase market power The market power construct holds that strong rights cut down bilateral exchange by guaranting a impermanent monopoly over the protected cognition. This market power is attributed to the patent ( grant ) holder, whether domestic or foreign. Firms that secure strong patent protection in foreign markets can exert their market power by curtailing measure and increasing the unit monetary value of bilateral exchange to that market ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ; Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . Firms ‘ behavior depends on a assortment of conditions. For illustration, market power can be generated by comparatively modest strength of IPRs when markets are segmented, when few near replacements are available and proficient soaking up capacities are weak. Furthermore, strong IPRs can reenforce market cleavage and cut down the ability to replace merchandises. As a consequence, a negative relationship can emerge between the strength of IPRs and bilateral flows under market power conditions, pa rticularly when proficient absorbent capacities are weak ( Smith, 2001 ) . Firms are likely to cut down the measure supplied and increase the protected merchandises ‘ monetary values. Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage trade and promote licensing A farther beginning of uncertainness stems from the fact that differing degrees of IPRs can impact a house ‘s determination about its preferable manner of functioning a foreign market. In an environment characterised by strong rights, a house may take to function a foreign market by FDI, or by licencing its rational assets instead than through direct export. In this regard, beef uping rational belongings protection can hold negative effects on trade flows ( Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . 5.4 Evidence from the position of developing states The empirical literature is about whether increased imports from developed states affect economic development and whether harmonization of IPRs has affected their export behavior. However, even within these countries, the empirical grounds from the position of developing states is instead limited, particularly sing the affect of imports from developed states on economic development. International harmonization of rational belongings rights may promote exports from emerging industrialized states Liu and Lin ( 2005 ) carried out a back-to-back pooled informations analysis from 1989 to 2000 in order to look into the relationship between IPRs and the exports of three hi-tech industries in Taiwan: semiconducting material, information and communicating equipment. Their empirical consequences showed that betterment in IPRs had a positive impact on Taiwan ‘s exports if the importing state had a stronger R A ; D ability than Taiwan. Furthermore, Liu and Lin found that when an importing state exhibited a strong menace of imitation, the betterment in IPRs in that state increased Taiwan ‘s exports through the market enlargement consequence. These consequences were corroborated farther by Yang and Huang ( 2009 ) . Harmonization has non increased exports from other developing states Smith et Al. ( 2009 ) explored whether TRIPS generated additions for developing states in the signifier of increased pharmaceutical exports. They found that TRIPS had non generated significant additions for developing states, but alternatively increased pharmaceutical trade in developed states. Chapter 6 Intellectual Property and Innovation 6.1 Overview Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning academic literature look intoing the relationship between IPRs and invention. This relationship can be examined through the impact of IPRs on domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) and IPRs ‘ impact on engineering transportation ( i.e. engineering soaking up and diffusion ) . The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states, to act upon engineering transportation from developed states and domestic invention. 6.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Intellectual belongings rights can supply inducements for houses to put in R A ; D Firms do non hold the right inducements to put in R A ; D and invention if the benefits of such investing accrue to their rivals. This is the traditional statement about private under-investment in R A ; D due to market failure ( Foray, 2009 ) . The production of new merchandises and procedures generates new cognition. New cognition carries considerable economic value, but it has characteristics that make it debatable for the market system to manage decently. Knowledge is seen as a public good, and public goods have two basic properties. First, they are non-rival in ingestion and 2nd, they are ‘non-excludable ‘ . Without IPRs, a free market economic system can neglect to bring on an optimum investing in R A ; D and invention, since investors would non be able to reimburse the full benefit from their investing. Stronger IPRs can give greater inducements to houses to put in R A ; D. Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Stronger IPRs give strong ownership advantages to houses in developed states, which can promote them to reassign their engineering to developing states through market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. Stronger rational belongings rights can cut down asymmetric information in engineering transportation IPRs can significantly cut down asymmetric information jobs in undertaking for international engineering transportation ( Arora, 1995 ) .The proprietor of a engineering may hold complete cognition about its specifications, its effectivity when deployed under different fortunes, associated know-how and the similar, while the purchaser has far less information about it. Therefore, the purchaser would be unwilling to offer a monetary value that would cover all of these claimed benefits before they are certain that such information is right. However, the marketer could be unwilling to uncover the information without a contract in topographic point at an acceptable monetary value: to make so could change the negotiating footings in his disfavor at best, and instantly make a rival based on the revealed cognition at worst. Stronger IPRs can let the decrease of asymmetric information in undertaking for engineering transportation. 6.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can increase market power Stronger IPRs are likely to raise the costs of engineering transportation, since they increase discoverers ‘ market power. Inventors can be expected to sell engineerings at a monetary value higher than fringy cost, which is socially less than optimal for the recipient state, at least in a inactive sense. Strengthening rational belongings rights can be deficient to cut down the asymmetric information job The statement developed by Arora ( 1995 ) is based on the transactional troubles created by the fact that statute information and tacit cognition are complementary and must be transferred together. However, this statement overlooks a job sing the receiver state ‘s legal and proficient capacities, it needs highly-skilled people who are able to cover with complex contract dialogues ( Foray, 2009 ) . Intellectual belongings rights systems can promote diffusion of free proficient information It is utile to remember that patent systems do non needfully impede the diffusion of proficient information. Rather, patent systems can even excite the diffusion of proficient information, since the discoverer must publically unwrap the proficient inside informations of the new technological cognition in exchange for patent rights. Technical description is an indispensable act. It is intended to supply sufficient ‘instructions ‘ for a specializer in that peculiar field, so as to be able to reproduce the innovation and better it. Strong IPRs may compel investors to unwrap their innovations to the full. In this sense, the patent system can bring forth a immense depository of proficient information in any technological country which can be freely used by anyone looking for information about a given engineering ( Foray, 2009 ) . Weak rational belongings rights can promote international engineering transportation through non-market channels International engineering transportation frequently occurs through non-market channels: nonvoluntary airing via copying and contrary technology. During the period of weak IPRs in developing states, copying was surely a major channel for international engineering transportation, in peculiar in the newly-industrialised states. Historical instances show that several developed states have used weak IPRs to hike the development of their industries ( Foray, 2009 ) . One can reason that it is plausible that IPRs may hinder such engineering transportation while beef uping ‘market-based ‘ channels, i.e. engineering transportation through trade, foreign direct investing and licensing 6.4 The empirical grounds The empirical literature on the impact of IPRs and invention in a North-South context has increased significantly throughout the 1990s and 2000s. The empirical grounds can be divided into two chief organic structures of work, foremost analyzing the effects of IPRs on international engineering and secondly look intoing how IPRs can impact on domestic invention in developing states. 6.4.1 Evidence on international engineering transportation Intellectual belongings rights tend to impact positively on licensing The majority of the empirical literature on the impact of IPRs on international engineering transportation has focused on the market-based signifiers of engineering transportation: trade, FDI and licensing. Yang and Maskus ( 2001 ) regressed the existent volume of license fees for industrial procedures paid by unaffiliated foreign houses to US houses in 23 developed and developing states in the 1980s and 1990s on the Ginarte-Park index ( Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, UK and Venezuela ) . They discovered that stronger patent rights pull larger arm’s-length volumes of accredited engineering, and that a 1 per cent rise in the index would increase licencing volumes by 2.3 per cent on norm. Smith ( 2001 ) relates US export, gross revenues of foreign affiliates and licensing fees to the Ginarte- Park patent index in several developed and developing states. In peculiar, Smith finds important grounds that stronger IPRs addition licensing payments on norm, at least for states with strong imitative abilities. Using the firm-data from Nipponese multinationals, Ito and Wakasugi ( 2007 ) found that stronger enforcement of IPRs accelerates the intra-firm engineering transportation measured by royalty payments from the affiliate to its parent houses. Intellectual belongings rights affect the channels of engineering transportation When analyzing the effects of IPRs on engineering transportation, it is of import to see the manners of bringing of engineering transportation through the different market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. The determinations among the different channels of engineering transportation depend on the strength of IPRs and ownership advantage ( Smith, 2001 ) . These determinations concern whether or non to reassign production, and therefore cognition, outside the beginning state and/or the beginning house. Firms prosecuting in exports hold their cognition inside both the beginning state and house. Firms that set up affiliates abroad transfer cognition outside the beginning state, but hold knowledge assets inside the beginning house. Firms that license their cognition assets to unaffiliated foreign houses transfer cognition outside both the beginning state and house. Smith ( 2001 ) finds that strong IPRs have a larger consequence on US cognition transferred outside the state and house, comparative to knowledge located inside the state and internalised in the house. In order words, strong IPRs spring inducements to houses in developed states to licence their engineerings to other houses in developing states, since the former will be able to command better the cognition transferred. 6.4.2 Evidence on domestic invention Although there are many empirical surveies on the relationship between IPRs and domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) in developed states, the empirical literature on developing states is much more limited. Stronger rational belongings rights seem to promote invention in emerging industrialized economic systems Using panel informations for 64 developing states over the period 1975-2000, Chen and Puttitanun ( 2005 ) showed the positive impact of IPRs on inventions in developing states. Dutta and Sharma ( 2008 ) examined whether IPRs in India have increased invention by houses. Using panel informations on Indian houses from 1989 to 2005, they found strong grounds that Indian houses in more innovation-intensive industries increased their R A ; D outgo after TRIPS. The estimated within-firm addition in one-year R A ; D disbursement after TRIPS was on mean 20 per centum points higher in an industry with a one standard-deviation higher value of invention strength. Chapter 7 Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge 7.1 Overview Familial resources from workss, animate beings and microorganisms are common in developing states, amounting to 90 per cent of the universe ‘s familial resources. Communities and persons in developing states have exploited these familial resources through the coevalss. Their usage is embodied in what frequently is referred to as traditional cognition. Clear events affecting IP jurisprudence and traditional cognition, every bit good as theoretical arguments, have informed the inquiries asked in empirical surveies ( Oguamanam, 2008 ) . 7.2 Evidence from the position of developing states Uniform IP Torahs can non guarantee diverseness of entree and benefit-sharing For developed states, the effectivity of steps to protect diverseness of cognition depends on favourable market conditions and on communities ‘ capablenesss to allow a degree of market power. This decision that protection of diverseness in invention and production depends on local capablenesss nowadayss specific concerns for developing states. Some surveies find that there are strong monetary value premiums for high-quality biological merchandises arising from developing states, such as java ( Grote, 2007 ; Tregear et al. , 2007 ) . Developing states host the bulk of familial resources but frequently lack the technological capacity and capital to develop these resources sustainably. Trommetter ( 2005 ) suggests, through mention to historical instance surveies in pharmaceuticals and agribusiness, that developing states ‘ capacity to negociate, their bargaining power and perceptual experiences of their committedness to implement understandings impact the just benefit-sharin g of familial resources among those in developed and developing states. Tailored IP Torahs may back up diverseness of entree and benefit-sharing Cases where a clear deficiency of capableness in developing states to act upon invention processes correspond with a turning literature look intoing steps to supply for diverseness of engagement in cognition protection governments in developing states. This subdivision reviews the empirical literature in each of these countries in bend, underscoring the grounds for the effectivity of these different steps possible through IP jurisprudence to protect the diverseness of cognition related to familial resources in developing states. Chapter 8 Recommendations There are theoretical statements demoing that beef uping IPRs can hold positive effects on FDI. Strong rights can make ownership advantages that allow houses to put abroad. They can besides stand for a location advantage, which can be used by developing states to pull new cross-border investing. Furthermore, stronger IPRs can supply inducements for multinationals to increase the quality of their investing dedicated to developing states. Strong IPRs can increase the market power of multinationals in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and to diminish their investing and gross revenues abroad. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down FDI to the benefit of licensing. Empirical grounds shows that stronger IPRs positively affect the volume of inward FDI in developing states, particularly those with strong proficient absorbent capablenesss. Additionally, they may act upon the composing of FDI by promoting investing in production and R A ; D instead than in gross revenues and distribution. international harmonization of IPR governments may promote exports from emerging industrialized states. However, this harmonization does non look to hold increased exports from other developing states. Stronger IPRs in developing states may further international engineering transportation, at least to states with strong technological absorptive capablenesss. Stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to information dissymmetries in catching. Chapter 9 Decision The argument for rational belongings rights execution in developing states provides the base for the limit among developed, developing and hapless or least developed states ( LDC ) . On one side, developing states views the TRIPS understandings, in association to rational belongings rights as an bullying for their present economic systems, which might finally increase the entree to technological merchandises by increasing their cost. Soon, there is a demand to set up a model on the base of TRIPS understanding which could let the unvarying execution of strong or comparatively better IPR governments in the underdeveloped economic systems. This study has examined the impact of beef uping IPRs in developing states in four chief countries – FDI, trade, invention and familial resources and traditional cognition through a reappraisal of the most recent scholarly and gray literature. The empirical findings from the study show that stronger IPRs seem to act upon the determinations of single houses in developed states by promoting them to export, put and reassign their engineerings through licensing in developing states, in peculiar those with strong proficient absorbent activities. By increasing market power, strong IPRs can increase the costs of international engineering transportation. Furthermore, well-structured IPRs can promote the airing of free proficient information in the economic system. Some theoretical statements suggest that stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to inf ormation dissymmetries in catching. As a conclusive note, beef uping IPRs can increase the market power of foreign houses in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and diminish their exports to developing states. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down trade to the benefit of licensing. Furthermore, there is empirical grounds proposing that IPRs can positively impact trade, at least with states with high proficient absorbent capablenesss. However, stronger IPRs have differential effects across industries. How to cite Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights, Essay examples

Rich Soils of India free essay sample

SOILS IN INDIA Soil is the uppermost layer of Earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s crust. Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it supports the lives on earth. How soils are formed? Soils are formed due to the weathering of rocks. WHAT IS SOIL? Soil is the thin layer of loose mixture of small rock particles and rotting organic matter that covers much of the worldaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s land surface. SOIL FORMATION Soil formation is a very long process. It begins with the weathering of rocks into small fragments. The rocks are also worn away by the agents of erosion like river, wind, sea and glacier. The sediments and tiny rock particles are then deposited by the agents of erosion. The accumulation of such sediments over the ages forms soil. Eventually, the plants that grow on the soil, shed their leaves which decay to form the topmost layer of soil called humus. We will write a custom essay sample on Rich Soils of India or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page India is primarily an agricultural country. The success of agriculture depends upon the fertility of soils. The soils of India are classified into the following main groups depending upon the rock cover and climatic conditions. The most two important factors that determine the types of soil found in India are : i. The climate ii. The topography The soils of India on the basis of their formation are divided in the following two broad catagories. 1. Residual Soil 2. Transported Soil The major soil groups are: Black Soil Black soils are mainly found over the Deccan lava tract (Deccan Trap) including Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. These soils are found in river valley of Narmada, Tapi, Godavari and Krishna. These soils have been formed due to the weathering of the lava rocks. This is also known as the Regur soil and Cotton soil. These soils are rich in lime. iron, magnesia and alumina but lack in the phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. It is formed by the weathering of igneous rocks and the cooling of lava after a volcanic eruption. In India, extensive deposits of black soil are found in the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper parts of Godavari and Krishna, the north western part of Deccan Plateau, black soil is very deep. BLACK SOIL IS:- Clayey, deep and impermeable They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried During dry season, these soils develop wide cracks. Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina Also contain potash Lack phosporus, nitrogen and organic matter Colour of the soil ranges from deep black of grey. Known as Black Cotton Soils. Dark in colour, suitable for cotton cultivation Are residual soils, i. e. they are formed at the place of their origin over the underlying rocks. Are formed in situ, i. e. formed where they are found. Therefore, they are essentially formed by weathering of Deccan Trap. Spread over an area of 5. 4 sq. km. , i. e. 16. 6 % of the total land area of the country. CHARACTERISTICS: * Fine textured and clayey in nature . * Has high qualities of lime, iron, mangnesium, and generally poor percentage of phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter. Black in colour as it is formed from weathered lava rocks Soilaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s colour also varies from Black to Chestnut brown Very clayey and therefore highly retentive of water. Because of high clay content, these soils expand when wet and become difficult to plough. During dry season, black soils shrink and develop big cracks which help in air circulation . Soil is very fe rtile in most of places. Poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and organic matter and rich in potash and lime. Needs irrigation support for cultivation Contains soluble salts in small quantities. Cultivation is done with the help of fertilizers . Suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture. CROPS: Cotton cultivation Suitable for growing cereals, rice, wheat, jowar, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane. Their moisture aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"retentiveness makes them suitable for dry farming. RED SOIL These soils are found in Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and periphery areas of Deccan Plateau. These soils have been formed due to decomposition fo underlying igneous rocks under heavy rainfall. These are suitable for the cultivation of millets, pulses. Lin-seed, tobacco etc. These soils are poor in Lime, Nitrogen and humus. CHARACTERISTICS: Red soils are reddish in colour due to the presence of iron. This type of soil is found in south India as well as in the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses. Occupy an area of about 3. 5 lakh sq km aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 10. 6% of the total land area of the country . These are transported type soils. Found to a depth of 500 meters. Coarsest in the upper section of the valley, medium in the middle and finest in the delta region. Are mostly light to dark colour depending on new or old alluvium. Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation. Deficient in nitrogen, lime, magnesia, humus and phosphate Found mainly on the plateau region of peninsular India, the Malwa Plateau and the Chotanagpur Plateau. It covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, south-eastern Maharashtra, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand. They practically encircle the entire black soil region on all sides. They extend northwards in the west along with the Konkan Coast of Maharashtra. Red due to its very high iron content. Colour varies from red to brown, chocolate and yellow. Are porous, friable in nature . Loose and aerated. Contains soluble salts in small quantities. LATERITE SOIL Laterite = brick (Latin word) These soils are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon conditions. Residual soils formed by leaching in areas of heavy rain. Leaching is a process in which the nutrients get percolated down below the soil due to heavy rainfall; thus leaving the top soil in Fertile. Also called DESILICATION. Laterite soils are found in elevated areas which receive very high rainfall As a result, top soil gets washed away. This process is called leaching. The soil, therefore, loses its fertility to a great extent. It covers an area of about 2. 4 lakh sq km. These soils are found in the north- eastern state of Meghalaya in India. Is of coarse texture, soft and friable. Is red due to the presence of iron oxide which is formed by leaching. The soluble plant foods like potash are removed from the top soil leaving alumina and iron oxide. Is a porus soil, silica is removed from it by chemical action. Is poor in lime and magnesium, and deficient in nitrogen. Laterite soil is formed by weathering of lateritic rocks, low temperature and heavy rainfall with alternating dry and wet periods. TWO TYPES : Upland Laterites and Lowland Laterites Upland laterite:- are formed over hills and uplands. From they were transported by steams towards lowlands. Such transported soils are known as Lowland Laterites. Laterite soil does not retain moisture and hence is not fertile. It suits only special crops like Tapioca, Cashewnuts, etc. It is acidic in nature as alkalis are leached. Laterite soils are found on the highland areas of the plateau. These are found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and Chhotanagpur plateau. These are shallow, acidic and less fertile soils. These soils are poor in lime but rich in iron. So these are suitable for plantation of crops like tea, rubber, coffee etc. Since low fertility because of high acidity and low moisture retention, manuring and other activities are required to make them suitable for growing crops such as ragi, rice and sugarcane. Paddy is grown on lower elevations whereas tea, cinchona, rubber, and coffee are grown on higher elevations. It is also suitable for building purpose. ALLUVIAL SOILS Alluvial Soil (Riverine soil) It covers about 40 percent of land area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarath. These soils are formed by the deposition of fine sediments and silt by the rivers along their banks. In India, alluvial soils are mostly found in the Great Northern Plains, the coastal plains and river deltas In Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys. These soils originate from the transported alluvium brought by the rivers. They can be divided into two types: 1. Young Khadar soils: these are newer alluvium of sandy, pale brown composition, found in lower areas of valley bottom which are flooded almost every year. It is non phorous, clayey and loamy. 2. Old Bhangar soils: these consist of older alluvium of clayey composition and are dark in colour. They are coarse in nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels. They are found 30 m above flood level of the rivers. They represent the aâ‚ ¬? riverine alluviumaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ brought down by Sutlej, Yamuna, Ghagra and other rivers of Indo-Gangetic Plains. These soils are the most widespread soils covering an area of 8 lakh sq. km from Punjab to Assam. These are found in the river basin, flood plains and coastal areas. These soils are deep soils rich in potash but poor in nitrogen. These soils are covering 22. 16 per cent of total area of India. The major rivers which are contributing in the formation of the alluvial soils are :Ganga river, Brahmaputra river, Sutlej river, Mahanadi river , Godavari river , Krishna river CHARECTERISTICS Alluvial soils though differ greatly in texture, are very fertile on whole. They: Respond well to irrigation and manuring. Good for both rabi and kharif crops. Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, rice, cotton and oilseeds. In delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation. AREA/STATES Alluvial soils of two types: deltaic coastal and inland alluvial. Found in Uttaranchal, U. P. , Bihar, W. Bengal, Punjab, Haryana Assam. In south, found in the plains and deltas in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu. Useful for agriculture since it is fertile. Soil is rich in potash and lime but poor in nitrogen and humus. Important crops aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton and jute. It is very suitable for jute. Other Soils: The other soils in the category of the Indian soils are as follows: DESERT SOIL These soils cover 2 lakh sq. km areas in dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. These coarse soils are suitable for cultivation of jowar, bajara, cotton etc. Saline and Alkaline Soils: These soils are found in the dry and marshy areas. These are locally known as Bhur, Rehu, Kallar. The accumulation of salts makes these soils infertile. Mountain Soils: Mountain soils are found in, as the name suggests, in mountainous regions. They are quite prone to soil erosion as a result of the top soil getting washed away due to the steep slopes of the mountains after a period of heavy rainfall. These soils are mostly thin and infertile. These include peat, meadow and forest hill soils. The major characteristics of this soil are: *they are rich in humus * are coarse and infertile. They are deficient in potash, phosphorous and lime. *Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim as well as higher reaches of Arunachal Pradesh have mountain soil. ARID AND DESERT SOILS Large part of arid and semi-arid region of Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana Desert soils are found in arid regions which receive very little rainfall. CHARECTERISTICS *Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the formation of this soil . *Having less than 50 cm rainfall . The high temperature adds to the loss of any remaining moisture in the soil. The soil is therefore sandy in nature. Thar Desert in Rajasthan has sandy soil. *Covers an area of about 1. 4 lakh sq km * Originated from the mechanical disintegration of the ground rock of by deposition by wind Desert soil contain 90% of sand and 5% of clay. It contains rich percentage of soluble salts, but lack in organic matter. * Are porous and coarse . * They respond well to irrigation and manuring , especially phosphate and nitrate. it can improve the soil fertility as it is seen in the case of Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan. * Only suitable for drought resistance crops like millets, barley, cotton, mai ze and pulses. SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS Soils with high proportion of salts and alkalis are called saline and alkaline soils . They are formed due to accumulation of tidal water in adjoining coasts where drainage is poor. They are found in drier parts of Bihar, Rajasthan, U. P. , Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra. These soils contain many salts like sodium, magnesium and calcium which make them infertile and render unfit for agriculture. MARSHY SOIL Found in continuously water-logged areas, or marshy areas especially in the coastal regions near the sea or near the deltas. * It covers about 56,000 sq km. * They are formed as a result of water-logging * It contain iron and varying amount of decayed organic matter. * Found in southern parts of Siwaliks, Jammu and Kashmir, U. P. DENUDATION Denudation is the process of wearing away of the earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s surface. There are many agents of denudation. 1. Rivers 2. Glaciers 3. Winds 4. Sea waves, etc. SOIL EROSION Soil erosion is the main problem of our country . It is on the increase in recent years Main reasons : * Running water * overgrazing * faulty methods of agriculture * Over irrigation * Wind * Men, plants and animals Soil erosion happens when particles of soil come loose and are carried away by water or the wind. When it rains so much that the water cannot seep into the soil fast enough, the extra water flows down the slope, carrying soil particles with it. Many agricultural soils are easily eroded. The erosion problem is likely to be more severe on certain types of soils, on steep slopes, where there is intense rainfall, and where the vegetation is removed Indirectly soil erosion helps in the soil forming because from wherever the soil is removed it is deposited elsewhere. However it disturbs the agricultural pattern and should be prevented. There are several ways in which soil erosion takes place due to running water. a. Splash erosion b. Sheet erosion c. Gully erosion d. Rill erosion SPLASH EROSION Splash erosion or rain drop impact represents the first stage in the erosion process. Splash erosion results from the bombardment of the soil surface by rain drops. Rain drops behave as little bombs when falling on exposed or bare soil, displacing soil particles and destroying soil structure. Studies have shown that splashed particles may rise as high as 0. 6 metres above the ground and move up to 1. 5 metres horizontally. Splash erosion results in the formation of surface crusts which reduce infiltration resulting in the start of runoff. It is the first stage in the erosion process . It results from the bombardment of the soil surface by raindrops . It is the primary cause of soil detachment and soil disintegration. It means that resettled sediment blocks soil pores resulting in surface crusting and lower infiltration. SHEET EROSION Sheet erosion Occurs when thin layers of the topsoil are moved by the force of the runoff water, leaving the surface uniformly eroded Cultivation on hill slopes is the main cause of soil erosion. RILL EROSION Rill erosion Caused by runoff water when it creates small, linear depressions in the soil surface. These are easily removed during land tillage GULLY EROSION Unlike rill erosion, gullies are too deep to be removed during normal cultivation with ordinary farm implements. They are formed from small depressions, which concentrate water and enlarge until several join to form a channel. The deepening channel undermines the head wall, which retreats upslope. The gully then widens as the side-walls are worn back. Sea or Shore erosion * Tidal waters of sea cause considerable damage to the soil along the sea coast. * Powerful waves dash against sea-coast and break hanging cliff rocks. * Broken material is then removed by the retreating sea waves. This type of erosion is seen throughout the eastern and western coasts of India. Typical features of coastal erosion: from the initial cracks in less resistant rock through to arches, stacks, and stumps that can occur as erosion progresses. STREAM BANK EROSION: Stream bank erosion is common along rivers, streams and drains where banks have been eroded, sloughed or undercut. However, it is im portant to remember that a stream is a dynamic and constantly changing system. It is natural for a stream to want to meander, so not all eroding banks which are slowly eroding are bad and in need of repair. Generally, stream bank erosion becomes a problem where development has limited the meandering nature of streams, where streams have been channelized, or where stream bank structures (like bridges, culverts, etc. ) are located in places where they can actually cause damage to downstream areas. Stabilizing these areas can help protect watercourses from continued sedimentation, damage to adjacent land uses, control unwanted meander, and improvement of habitat for fish and wildlife. Streams and rivers change their courses by cutting one bank and depositing the silt on the others. During flash floods, the damage is much acclerated. Prevalent in the flood plains of Ganga, Yamuna, and other rivers. As a result, large areas of agricultural land in the states of U. P. , Rajasthan, M. P. have been transformed into ravines. WIND: Soil erosion by wind on extensive flat lands which are subject to windy dry season for part of the year. The upper soil surface becomes loose and susceptible to wind erosion due to lack of moisture. OVERGRAZING Due to overgrazing, wind erosion occurs as the soil devoid of vegetation is directly exposed to the wind. FAULTY METHODS OF AGRICULTURE i)Shifting agriculture as in Northeast India ii)Lack of crop rotation ii)Wrong ploughing LEACHING In agriculture, leaching may refer to the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation. Soil structure, crop planning, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss. Leaching may also refer to the practice of applying a small amount of excess irrigati on where the water has a high salt content to avoid salts from building up in the soil (salinity control). Where this is practiced, drainage must also usually be employed, to carry away the excess water. Leaching is an environmental concern when it contributes to groundwater contamination. As water from rain, flooding, or other sources seeps into the ground, it can dissolve chemicals and carry them into the underground water supply. Of particular concern are hazardous waste dumps and landfills, and, in agriculture, excess fertilizer and improperly stored animal manure. SHEET EROSION: Removal of thin layer of soil from a large area. In sheet erosion a thin layer of soil is removed from a large area. RILL EROSION: A series of small channels on a slope carved by running water. GULLY EROSION: Large, wide channels carved by running water. As a rule of thumb, a gully is large enough that it cannot be smoothed out with conventional tillage equipment. SPLASH EROSION: Splash erosion where the soil is pulverised by the impact of heavy drops and hailstones as in case of convectional rainfall. SOIL EROSION DUE TO HUMAN FACTOR: * Loss of forest cover aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" annual rate- about 47,500 hectares * Leads to sheet erosion on hilly slopes because water instead of sinking into the ground washes the soil down. * In the second stage, in the absence of vegetation cover and washing off of the absorbent top soil, rills begin to appear on the landscape In the third stage, the water run off during heavy rains may develop deep grooves causing Gully erosion. * The Outer Himalayas, the Western Eastern Ghats are subjected to deforestation by man. * These areas receive heavy rainfalls. Removal vegetation cover for different land use like railway lines, roads, buildings, or even agriculture has caused Sheet, Rill or Gully erosion * Shif ting cultivation aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" heavy rains wash away the bare soil from the slopes to the valleys below. * Uncontrolled gazing of domestic animals in the valleys and the upper slopes. WIND EROSION Wind erosion refers to the movement and deposition of soil particles by wind . It occurs when soil devoid of vegetation is exposed to high velocity wind. Wind moves soil particles 0. 1 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 0. 5 mm in size in bouncing or hopping fashion and those greater than 0. 5 by rolling. The former is known as saltation and the latter as soil creep. The particles less than 0. 1mm or the fines particles detach into suspension. Infact wind erosion is most visible in the suspension stage, as dust storms or subsequently as deposition along fence lines and across roads. CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION IN INDIA )Heavy population pressure on land: forest cover as low as 20. 55% of total area aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" population continues to rise at a rapid rate aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" more forests are destroyed aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" heavy pressure on land. 2)Nature of Rainfall:- receives 80 to 90 per cent of rainfall in the monsoon season. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" heavy downpour during during monsoon months causes floods. remainin g months aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" droughts aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" these affect soils 3)Overgrazing aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" number of domestic animals, esp cattle highest in world aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" cattle freely graze in open lands making them bare of vegetation-winds carry away dry soil particles Rajasthan 4). Bad farming techniques aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" plough fields in traditional ways aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" small size of holdings, absence of terracing, contour cultivation, crop rotation, improper use of manure have caused erosion 5) Topography aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" North aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Eastern parts of India, Shiwaliks and the hilly regions in south India are affected by soil erosion because of steep slopes and heavy rainfall. During heavy rainfall, soils are washed away by running water down the slope. 6) Deforestation: destruction of forests for cultivation aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" cutting of trees exposes the soil to water and wind which leads to soil erosion REGIONS OF SOIL EROSION Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, UP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka. Worst affected areas include: * The badlands of Chambal and Yamuna rivers * The piedmont zone of the western Himalayas * The Chotanagpur plateau region * The Tapi-Sabarmati valley region in Gujarat * The regur soil area of Maharashtra * The dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION: * Loss of fertile top soil * Lowering of the underground water table and decreasing soil moisture * Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands, increase in the frequency of droughts and floods Silting of river and canal beds, Recurrence of landslides, adverse effect on economic prosperity and cultural development * Wind erosion reduces the productive capacity of soil, as most of the nutrients required by the plants are carried by the wind. PREVENTION OF SOIL EROSION AND SOIL CONSERVATION 1. Terrace Farming:- On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away. 2. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along contourson a slope prevents soil being washed away by rainwater or by surface run off. Contours act like bunds. Terraces are levelled into step like small fields with even slope. 3)Afforestation: planting of trees along the edges of the fields, the waste land and on steepy slopes to prevent soil erosion as wellas to enahnce the capacity of the soil to retain water. * increase area under forests and indiscriminate felling of trees must stop. 4) Shelter Belts: Farmers plant trees in several rows to check wind erosion. Known as wind breaks. 5) Strip cropping: Crops are grown in alternate strips of land to check the impact of the winds. 6) Construction of dams: Rivers cause soil erosion. Dams are built in the upper course of rivers to control erosion of soil. This would check the speed of water and thereby save soil from erosion 7) Ploughing Gullies: The gullies made in the soil are plugged with deposition of silt during heavy rains. 8) Shifting or Jhuming or slash and burn type of agriculture should be banned. SOIL CONSERVATION SCHEMES 1. The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the catchments of flood-prone rivers was launched during sixth Plan in eight flood-prone rivers of the Gangetic Basin covering seven States and one Union Territory. It aims at enhancing the ability of the catchment by absorbing larger quantity of rainwater, reducing erosion and consequent silt load in the stream and river beds and thus helping to mitigate the fury of floods in the productive plains. 2. A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine areas was launched in 1987-88 in MP, UP and Rajasthan. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" included prepheral bunding to halt further ingress of ravines, afforestation of ravines, aforestaton of ravines for fuel, fodder and reclamation of shallow ravines. 3. Control of shifting cultivation is implemented since 1994-95 in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura The integrated programme envisages settling of families practising shifting cultivation. it helps them to practise terraced cultivation, raising of horticultural palantations and afforestation to support animal husbandry and to meet fuel and fodder requirements. 4. In urban areas, rain water harvesting is means of checking soil erosion, besides recharging ground water. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX SOLVED QUESTIONS 1. a. Name a rock from which black soils are formed? Write on characteristic of this soil? Ans. Igneous rock. The soil has a great capacity to retain moisture. b. Name the type of soil found on the summit of the Eastern Ghats. How is it formed? Ans. Laterite soil. Laterite soil is formed by leaching. c. i) Name any two regions where coastal alluvium is found. ii. ) Why is deltic alluvium more fertile than coastal alluvium? Ans. c. i) The coastal alluvium occurs in the coastal strips of peninsular India and the plains of Gujarat. ii. Deltic alluvium (Khaddar) is more fertile than coastal alluvium (Bhangar) as new layers are deposited year after year during monsoonal floods. . State any three factors which affect the soil formation. Ans: i) WEATHERING: Extremes of temperature (as in the day and night temperatures in deserts), freezing and thawing of ice break down rocks, and favour soil formation. ii) VEGETATION: The growth and decay of vegetation determines the humus content of the soil. Roots of plants penetrate the soil and make it po rous. iii. Bio-chemical processes taking place in the soil: Bacteria and fungi cause the decay of plants and animal remains. Some transform the atmospheric nitrogen into soil nitrogen. 2. a) Name one crop one mineral associated with Black soil. Name two states in India where this type of soil is found. Ans: Crop: Cotton, Mineral: Iron State : Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh b) How is Red soil formed? Mention two important properties of Red Soil. Ans: Red soil is formed djue to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Peninsular plateau. The properties of red soil are: * it is loamy in deep depressions and in uplands, it consists of lose gravel- a highly coarse material. * It is deficient in lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus but fairly rich in potash. C) Explain the following terms: i) Soil Erosion ii) Conservation of Soil ) SOIL EROSION: It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water, wind, over grazing and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers. ii) CONSERVATION OF SOIL: Conservation of soil is an effort made by humans to prevent soil erosion in order to retain fertility of soil. d. With which type of soil is the term leaching associated? Name two region s in India where this type of soil is found. Ans: Leaching is associated with laterite soil. TWO REGIONS: 1. Assam Hills 2) Hill summit of Eastern and Western Ghats Question: 3 a. Give a single word for the following: )The organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals Humus ii)The soil which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Transported soil. b. How does the soil of the Ganga Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra? Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black soil. The soil of Ganga-Yamuna plain has been formed from the sediments deposited by rivers whereas soils of central Maharashtra have been formed due to the weathering of the lava. c. Give reasons: i. Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile: Since the soil is made up of fine particles, it can hold a lot of water. ii. Black soil needs to be tilled after the first rain: When wet, the soil becomes sticky and is difficult to work with. So the soil needs to be tilted after the first rains. iii. Red soil is ideal for dry farming: It is suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture. QUESTION 4 a. Read the feature of the soil carefully and identify the soil: i)It develops insitu as a result of leaching Laterite soil ii)It develops on crystalline igneous rocks. Red soil ii)It develops insitu from volcanic rocks. Black soil iv) It is a transported soil and is formed by river sediments. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Alluvial soil b. Mention any four human factors responsible for soil erosion. (2) Deforestation, faulty methods of agriculture, urbanisation and industrialisation. c. Name any two crops association with following soils: (3) i. Alluvial soil Rice and sugarcane ii. Red soil Rice and wheat iii. Black soil Cotton and wheat d. aâ‚ ¬? Proper farming techniques can help in soil conservation. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Explain by giving three examples. * Terracing of hill slopes is effective in controlling soil erosion. Terracing is cutting into the hill slopes in a series of large steps made up of flat fields. * Constructing bunds across hill slopes and filed boundaries is effective in reducing soil erosion. Bunds are low mud walls or embankments that help to obstruct the flow of water. * Contour ploughing should be practised. It involves ploughing along the outline of the field in a circular manner. This prevents the soil from being washed away by running water. 5A. Name four broad types of soils found in India. Red, black, alluvial and laterite soil. B. Give two reasons responsible for low fertility in laterite soil. It is formed due to leaching. * It is poor in lime, phosphorous, nitrogen and potash which are fertile ingredients of a rich soil. C. What is conservation of soil? Why is it necessary? Soil conservation includes all those measures which help in protecting the soil from erosion and exhaustion It is necessary because soil is our most important natural resource. It alone assures prosper ous agriculture. D. Mention any three characteristics of the northern plains. * These are constituted by two large river basins i. e. the Indus river basin and the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. * These are very fertile plains. These plains support some of the highest population densities. 6a. Differentiate between sheet erosion and gully erosion. 1. When top soil gets eroded from very large areas due to fast flowing rivers it is called sheet erosion. Gully erosion occurs when running water etches out deep rivers creating a badland topography in an otherwise normal landscape. 2. The unprotected lands are most susceptible to sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is particularly harmful because it removes the top layer which is finer and fertile. The main cause of gully erosion is the removal of vegetation, particularly of trees with their widespread binding roots. Gully erosion is also responsible for the formation of ravines. b. Explain the formation of soil. Name three various forces of nature which contribute to the evolution of soil. Soils are derived from parent rock material through the process of break up or wear and tear. Various forces of nature i) changing temperature, ii) running water, iii) wind contribute to the evolution of soil. QUESTION 7a. State two main differences between alluvial soil and red soil. * Alluvial soil is a transported soil whereas red soil is residual. * Alluvial soil is highly moisture retentive while red soil is not. . Why is laterite soil unsuitable for agriculture? Name an area in India where this soil is found. -Laterite soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to its high content of acidity and inability to retain moisture. It is poor in nitrogen and lime. c. How is Regur soil formed? Mention four important properties/ features of Regur Soil. These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava sp read over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau. Features: * it is well known for its capacity to hold moisture * it is a deep fine grained soil * it is dark in colour it is rich in lime, iron, magnesium and potash * poor in phosphoric content. * made of extremely fine material i. e. , clayey material. d. Mention two ways by which soil can get nitrogen. Soil can get nitrogen by : * By growing pulses as there are certain bacteria in the roots of pulses which have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrogen compounds. * By applying NPK fertilizer. e. Explain the need for soil conservation in India. State two methods of soil conservation. i) Soil is the most precious asset of India. More than 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture. i) Protective soil alone ensures progress of agriculture, forests and industrial development. METHODS: i) Afforestation ii) Proper farming technique 8. a. How is red soil formed? Why are red soils not suitable for agriculture? Red soil is formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Red soils are not suitable for agriculture because these are not retentive of moisture and are deficient in nitrogen, lime, phosphoric acid and humus. It is light in texture. b. With reference to red soils in India, i. Name two states where it found. ii. State two disadvantages of this soil. i. It is found in Tamil Nadu/Karnataka, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Goa. ii. It is poor in humus, nitrogen, lime, phosphorus AND Not retentive of moisture. 9. a. Mention two important characteristic of laterite soil. i. Laterite soils are acidic in nature, coarse and crumbly in texture. ii. Due to lack of nitrogen, potassium and organic elements laterite soils lack fertility. b. Name an area of black soil in India. Mention two crops grown in this soil. Malwa region of India having a concentration of Black soil. Major crops are cotton and sugarcane. c. How is alluvial soil formed? Why is this soil agriculturally important? Alluvial soil is formed after the sedimentation of alluvium by rivers. This soil is agriculturally most important because it is fertile and renewed every year by rivers. d. Name two important agents of erosion. For each, state one method of controlling the erosion caused. Two important agents of erosion are : i) Running water ii) Faulty agricultural activities. Construction of dam and river embankment can control the soil erosion caused by running water. Scientific methods of cultivation like contour ploughing, terrace farming and conservation of moisture is the important conservative measure. MORE QUESTIONS: . Name one area where laterite soils is found on large scale. Laterite soil is found in parts of Kerala, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, on the summits of the Western and Eastern Ghats. 2. Name the type of soil found on the summits of the Eastern Ghats. Laterite soil. 3. Why is laterite soil unsuitable for agriculture? -unsuitable due to its high content of acidity a nd inability to retain moisture. It is poor in nitrogen and lime. 4. What is laterite soil? Laterite soils are those formed under alternating wet and dry spells. They are composed of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. They are poor in nitrogen, potash, lime. They are low in fertility but respond favourably to manuring and leaching of soil of its nutrients. 5. In which parts of India are laterite soils found? They are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, A. P. , Orissa and on the summits of Eastern and Western Ghats. 6. What is the meaning of leached soil? It is the process by which soluble substances such as organic and mineral salts are washed out of the upper layer of soil into a lower layer by percolating rainwater 7. Name one Indian soil that has been formed by leaching. Laterite soil. 8. Name the soil known for its self-ploughing quality and capacity to hold moisture. Name one cash crop for which it is most suited? Black soil. The cash crop that grows best is Cotton/sugarcane. 9. How does the soil of the Ganga-Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra? Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black soil. Alluvial soil is transported soil. Black soil is formed in situ. 10. State one feature of Mountain soil. Name two crops that can be grown on it. * One feature of mountain soil is- it is rich in Iron but poor in lime. It is coarse in texture, friable in nature. * Good for growing tea, coffee and fruits such as apples, plums, cherries. 11. Which soil is found suitable for growing coffee in Karnataka? The soil found suitable for growing coffee is Mountain soil or Laterite soil, or Red soil. 12. Name the soil which is formed due to high temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternating wet and dry periods . Name two states where this type of soil is found. Ans: Laterite soil. Found in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Kerala. 13. Write a short note on conservation of soil. Ans: Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, salinization, acidification, or other chemical soil contamination. The following are the methods of soil conservation: 1) Afforestation: In some areas the original vegetation cover has been removed such as the Shiwalik Hills. In such areas afforestation and reforestation is needed to hold the soil. 2) Controlled grazing: The number of cattle grazing the slopes should be according to the carrying capacity of pastures. ) Terraced agriculture: Slopes must be cut into a series of terraces for cultivation so as to slow down inflow of rainwater. 4) River dams: River dams should be built in the upper course of rivers to control floods and check soil erosion. 5) Contour ploughing: Contour ploughing terracing and bunding should be done to check soil wash on slopes. Ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slopes. 6) Crop methods: Crop rotation system should be adopted and the land should be allowed fallow for sometime. 7) Other methods: In areas of heavy rain, basin type of cultivation should be adopted. Tall trees should be grown as wind and shelter breaks belts in areas of strong winds. What is soil? Soil is a combination of four constituents: mineral material (sand, silt, clay and rocir and water. Soil is made from the breaking down of rocks and organic matter by physical, chemical and biological weathering processes. What do you understand by aâ‚ ¬? pedologyaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢? It is a branch of science which studies the soil. Xxxxxxxxxx EXTRA QUESTIONS 1. a. Give a single word for the following: (2) i) The organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals Humus i) The soil which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Transported soil. iii) The loose rock material, together with humus, forming the uppermost layer of the earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s crust and serving as a source of food and moisture for plantsaâ‚ ¬?. soil iv) The process of percolation by which valuable mineral nutrients are washed down from the t op layer of the soil only to deposit them in the lower layers, making thereby the topsoil infertile. b) How does the soil of the Ganga Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra? (2) Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black soil. * The soil of Ganga-Yamuna plain has been formed from the sediments deposited by rivers which are rich in potash but poor in nitrogen whereas soils of central Maharashtra have been formed due to the weathering of the lava which contains potassium, iron, magnesium and humus. * The soil of Yamuna-Ganga plain is suitable for the cultivation of a wide varieties of crops, i. e. rice, wheat, sugarcane, oil seeds, etc whereas the soil of the central Maharashtra region is most suitable for cotton crop. . Give reasons: (3) Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile: Since the soil is made up of fine particles, it can hold a lot of water. Black soil needs to be tilled after the first ra in: When wet, the soil becomes sticky and is difficult to work with. So the soil needs to be tilted after the first rains. Red soil is ideal for dry farming: It is suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture. d. i) Name any two regions where coastal alluvium is found. ii. ) Why is deltic alluvium more fertile than coastal alluvium? (3) Ans. c. ) The coastal alluvium occurs in the coastal strips of peninsular India and the plains of Gujarat. ii. Deltic alluvium (Khaddar) is more fertile than coastal alluvium (Bhangar) as new layers are deposited year after year during monsoonal floods. e. State any three factors which affect the soil formation. (3) Ans: i) WEATHERING: Extremes of temperature (as in the day and night temperatures in deserts), freezing and thawing of ice break down rocks, and favour soil formation. ii) VEGETATION: The growth and decay of vegetation determines the humus content of the soil. Roots of plants penetrate the soil and make it porous. iii. Bio-chemical processes taking place in the soil: Bacteria and fungi cause the decay of plants and animal remains. Some transform the atmospheric nitrogen into soil nitrogen. iv. CLIMATE : Climate is the most important single factor in the soil formation. the amount of rainfall and range of temperature are the most important climatic factors affecting soil formation. v. RELIEF: Low relief areas generally experience deposition and have deep layer of soil whereas the soils are generally shallow in the plateau areas. i) PARENT MATERIAL: Parent rock determines the composition of soil. f. What is soil? How soil is important to man? (2) Soil is the thin top cover of earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s crust composed of mineral particles, humus, water and air in which plant grows. Most of our food items like cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs, milk, clothing, etc. , are obtained directly or indirectly from the soil. A large number of human and economic activities depend on the soil. Fertile soil attracts a large number of people and human settlements. g. State the two most important factors that determine the types of soils found in India. 1) Parent material, relief, climate and natural vegetation are some of the major factors determining the types of soils found in India. h. What do you understand by humus? (1) It is the organic matter which is formed by the decomposition of plant remains, dead animals and manure. Humus content determines the fertility of the soil. i. Give reason: (5) i) Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile:- Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile because the alluvial soil is made up of fine particles. The soil is very fertile because it is rich in mineral nutrients like potash and lime. i) Black soils needs to be tilled after the first rain: The soil is sticky and difficult to work unless tilled immediately after the first rain. iii) Red soil is ideal for dry farmi ng: Red soil is ideal for dry farming because it does not require much moisture. iv) The percentage of organic matter in desert soil is very low:- The percentage of organic matter in desert soil is very low because of the dry climate and absence of vegetation. v) Red soil is less fertile:- Red soil is less fertile because it is deficient in phosphorous, nitrogen, lime and humus. j. Distinguish between aâ‚ ¬? Khaddaraâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and aâ‚ ¬? Bhangaraâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. (3) Bhangar (old)Khaddar (new) It is non-porous, clayey soilIt is porous and loamy soil. It is found higher up in the plains at river terraces away from rivers. It is found in the lower level in the plains near the rivers. It is less fertile as compared to khaddarIt is more fertile compared to bhangar. This is due to deposition of new layers by floods during monsoon It belongs to old alluvium. It belongs to new alluvium. 2. a. Read the feature of the soil carefully and identify the soil: (2) i) It develops insitu as a result of leaching Laterite soil ii) It develops on crystalline igneous rocks. Red soil iii) It develops insitu from volcanic rocks. Black soil iv) It is a transported soil and is formed by river sediments. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Alluvial soil Mention any four human factors responsible for soil erosion. (2) Deforestation, faulty methods of agriculture, urbanisation and industrialisation. Name any two crops association with following soils: (3) i. Allu vial soil Rice and sugarcane, wheat ii. Red soil Rice and wheat iii. Black soil Cotton and sugarcane iv. Desert Barley and ragi v. Laterite coffee and tea d. With reference to the type of soil only, state why: (3) i, Jowar is grown in Maharashtra. â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Jowar is grown in Maharshtra because of its black soil. ii. Bajra is grown in Rajasthan aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Bajra is grown in Rajasthan because of desert soil. iii) Sugarcane is grown in Uttar Pradesh aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Sugarcane is grown in Uttar Pradesh because of well drained alluvial soil. e. Name four broad types of soils found in India. (2) Red, black, alluvial and laterite soil. f. Mention any three characteristics of the northern plains. (3) * These are constituted by two large river basins i. e. the Indus river basin and the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. * These are very fertile plains. * These plains support some of the highest population densities. . What is the importance of Northern plains for the Indian economy? (3) * The plain supports some of the highest population densities depending upon purely agro-based economy in some of these areas. The extensive use of irrigation has made some parts of this plain, especially Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India. * The entire plan except the Thar Desert has a close network of roads and railways which has led to large scale industrialization and urbanization. h. Distinguish between Alluvial soil and Black soil keeping in mind texture, minerals and crops associated. (3) ALLUVIAL SOIL BLACK SOIL 1. TEXTURE: Coarse, in upper regions, medium in the middle and fine in the lower regions. Fine grained, moisture retentive. 2. MINERALS: Rich in potash. Rich in lime, iron and potash. 3. CROPS: Rice, wheat, and sugarcane. Cotton, sugarcane and tobacco. 4. FORMATION: It is formed due to deposition of sediments by the river. It is formed due to the weathering of the lava. 5. AREA: It covers more than 45% of the total land area of the country. It covers only 16% of the total land area of India. 6. FERTILITY: The soil is very fertile. The soil is less fertile as compared to alluvial soil.. . Explain the formation of soil. Name three various forces of nature which contribute to the evolution of soil. (3) Soils are derived from parent rock material through the process of break up or wear and tear. Various forces of nature i) changing temperature, ii) running water, iii) wind contribute to the evolution of soil. j. State two main differences between alluvial soil an d red soil. (2) Alluvial soil Red soil Most of the alluvial soil is derived from the sediments deposited by the rivers. Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Alluvial soil is highly moisture retentive. Red soil is not moisture retentive. Alluvial soil is very fertile as it is rich in mineral nutrients like potash and lime. It is less fertile as it is deficient in phosphorous, nitrogen, lime and humus. k. Mention two ways by which soil can get nitrogen. (2) Soil can get nitrogen by : * By growing pulses as there are certain bacteria in the roots of pulses which have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrogen compounds. * By applying NPK fertilizer or by adding manure, by crop rotation. l. Which minerals are found in regur soil? 1) Iron, lime, potash, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are found in regur soil. m. Distinguish between Transported and aâ‚ ¬? in-situaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ soils: (2) Transported soils In-situ soils These soils are carried down by the natural agents like water and winds. These soils are found where they are formed. Example: Alluvial soil Example: Black soil n. Distinguish between soils of Norther n Plains and Soils of the Deccan Plateau. (3) SOILS OF NORTHERN PLAINS SOILS OF THE DECCAN PLATEAU Soils of the Northern plains are alluvial soils. Soils of the Deccan Plateau are Black soil or red soil. They are very fertile, suitable for the cultivation of rice, wheat, sugar-cane, cotton, jute, oil seeds, etc They are also fertile, suitable for the cultivation of cotton, sugarcane, rice, tobacco, etc o. Distinguish between Inland alluvium and Coastal alluvium: (3) Inland Alluvium Coastal Alluvium Inland alluvial soils are found in the Indus river plains and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river plains. Coastal alluvial soils are found on the coastal regions of peninsular India. They are found in Punjab, Haryana, U. P. , Bihar, West Bengal. They are found in the Gujarat plains. p. Distinguish between Regur soils and Laterite Soils. 3) REGUR SOILS LATERITE SOILS Regur soils are black in colour. Latertite soils are red in colour. They are formed due to weathering of lava-flow rocks. They are formed due to weathering lf laterite rocks. They are of fine texture. They are of coarse texture. They are clayey in nature. They are soft and friable. They are rich in lime and magnesium. They are deficien t in lime and magnesium. Retention of moisture is high. They do not retain moisture. Regur soils are very fertile. Laterite soils are not fertile. They are suitable for cultivation of cotton, sugarcane, wheat, jowar, gram and linseed. They are suitable only for special crops like coffee, cashewnuts, tapioca , etc q. Distinguish between red and laterite soil. (2) Red soil Laterite soil Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks. ii. Rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton can be cultivated. Most of the laterite soil has been formed due to leaching. Coffee, rubber and cashew are some of the crops cultivated on this soil. 3. a. Write two differences between intensive and extensive farming. (2) INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE EXTENSIVE FARMING 1. Production is increased by using higher inputs and new techniques. 1. Production is increased by bringing more and more area under cultivation. 2. This is done in thickly populated areas where no more land is available. 2. This is done in thinly populated areas. b. Give a single word for each of the following: (1 mark each) * The loose rock material , together with humus, forming the uppermost layer of the earthaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s crust and serving as a source of food and moisture for plants. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Answer: Soil or Top soil * The process of percolation by which valuable mineral nutrients are washed down from the top layer of the soil only to deposit them in the lower layers, thereby making the top soil infertile. â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ans: leaching. c. Name the type of soil which is : (1 mark each) i) Useful for the cultivation of jute. Alluvial soil ii) Formed by decomposition of metamorphic rocks. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Red soil iii) Covers 40% of the land area of India. Alluvial Soil iv) Develops on old crystalline rocks under moderate to heavy rainfall. Red Soil v) Alkaline in nature and contains a high proportionof salts. Desert Soil. vi) Agriculturally most significant Alluvial Soil vii) formed due to volcanic activity Black/Regur soil viii) Rich in iron but poor in silica aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Laterite soil x) rich in humus Alluvial soil of the Ganga Delta x) Rich in potash but poor in phosphorus aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Alluvial Soil xi) Rich in lime and potash but deficient in phosphorous and nitrogen aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Laterite Soil d. What is dry farming? (1) Dry farming is the method of farming adopted in certain region having inadequate rainfall and devoid of irrigation facilities by conserving moisture in the soil and by raising drought-enduring crops. e. Explain the following terms: (1 mark each) i) In situ : The soils which are found where they are formed. They are also called residual soil. e. . Black Soil. b. Transported Soil: These are soils which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind. e. g. Alluvial Soil c . Badland: it is a region with a large number of deep gullies which cannot be put to any use till soil restoration takes place. d. Soil profile: A soil profile is a section showing the successive layers of the soil which would appear if you cut straight down into the soil. e. Humus: It is the organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals. Humus content determines the fertility of the soil. f. Parent Rock: The weathered and partially broken rock from which a soil is formed is termed as parent rock. g. Soil Texture: The proportion of the various particle sizes in a soil. h) Deccan Trap: The word aâ‚ ¬? trapaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is Swedish which means steps. The term describes the step-like rock formation that covers the north-western part of the Deccan Plateau. f. Place two broad categories the soils of India on the basis of their formation. (2) i) RESIDUAL SOILS: These are found where they are formed, hence called aâ‚ ¬? in situaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Black soil, Red Soil, and Laterite soil are the examples of residual soils. i) TRANSPORTED SOILS: These are carried down by agents of gradation such as rivers, and wind. Alluvial soil and Loess are the examples of transported soils. The most important transported soil in India is alluvial soil. The states are West Bengal and Bihar. g. Name the soils found abundantly in the following regions: (1 mark each) i) Hills of Assam and Megha laya aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Mountain Soil ii) Coastal strip of Deccan Plateau aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Coastal alluvium iii) South-Western parts of Punjab aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Desert Soil iv) Chhotanagpur Plateau aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Laterite Soil v) Delta of Krishna Deltaic alluvium vi) Sunderbans of West Bengal aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Deltaic alluvium a) Explain the following terms: i) Soil Erosion ii) Conservation of Soil iii) Deforestation iv) Contour Ploughing v) Strip Cropping vi) Crop Rotation (1 mark each) i) SOIL EROSION: It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water, wind, over grazing and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers. ii) CONSERVATION OF SOIL: Conservation of soil is an effort made by humans to prevent soil erosion in order to retain fertility of soil. iii) DEFORESTAION: The removal of trees of an area of land by felling or burning is called deforestation. The process of deforestation is deliberate in order to make the land available for other uses. iv) CONTOUR PLOUGHING: It is the cultivation of soil according to contour lines, i. e. at the right angles to the hill slopes. v) STRIP CROPPING: It is the cultivation of crops in strips to check the fast-blowing winds. vi) CROP ROTATION: It is the cultivation of crops in a year in such a sequence that the fertility of the soil is not reduced. b.. Explain the need for soil conservation in India. State two methods of soil conservation. (3) i) Soil is the most precious asset of India. More than 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture. ii) Protective soil alone ensures progress of agriculture, forests and industrial development. METHODS: i) Afforestation ii) Proper farming technique iii) shelter belts iv) terraced cultivation c. Name two important agents of erosion. For each, state one method of controlling the erosion caused. (3) Two important agents of erosion are : i) Running water ii) Faulty agricultural activities. iii) wind RUNNING WATER: Construction of dam, river embankment , terrace farming and afforestation can control the soil erosion caused by running water. FAULTY AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES: Scientific methods of cultivation like contour ploughing, terrace farming and conservation of moisture is the important conservative measure WIND: One method of controlling erosion caused by wind is planting of shelter belts alongside of desert. d. aâ‚ ¬? Proper farming techniques can help in soil conservation. aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Explain by giving three examples. (3) * Terracing of hill slopes is effective in controlling soil erosion. Terracing is cutting into the hill slopes in a series of large steps made up of flat fields. * Constructing bunds across hill slopes and filed boundaries is effective in reducing soil erosion. Bunds are low mud walls or embankments that help to obstruct the flow of water. * Contour ploughing should be practised. It involves ploughing along the outline of the field in a circular manner. This prevents the soil from being washed away by running water. e. Differentiate between sheet erosion and gully erosion. (2) 1. When top soil gets eroded from very large areas due to fast flowing rivers it is called sheet erosion. Gully erosion occurs when running water etches out deep rivers creating a badland topography in an otherwise normal landscape. 2. The unprotected lands are most susceptible to sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is particularly harmful because it removes the top layer which is finer and fertile. The main cause of gully erosion is the removal of vegetation, particularly of trees with their widespread binding roots. Gully erosion is also responsible for the formation of ravines. f. Difference between Sheet erosion and wind erosion and sheet erosion and gully erosion. (3) SHEET EROSION WIND EROSION It is caused by running water or heavy rain . It is caused by wind.. It is found in hilly regions. It is found in desert and dry regions. Due to high speed of water, a layer of the soil on the surface is removed